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Working Capital Financing and Management

Prerequisites

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1. Working Capital Financing Strategies

There are three main strategies for financing working capital based on the matching of assets with sources of funds:

1.1 Conservative Approach (Low Risk - Low Return)

Strategy: Finance all permanent WC and part of temporary WC with long-term funds.

Features:

  • High liquidity maintained
  • Lower risk of insolvency
  • Higher cost (long-term funds are expensive)
  • Lower profitability

Example:

Permanent WC: ₹10 lakhs
Temporary WC (Peak): ₹5 lakhs

Conservative Financing:
- Long-term funds: ₹12 lakhs (covers permanent + some temporary)
- Short-term funds: ₹3 lakhs (only peak temporary needs)

1.2 Aggressive Approach (High Risk - High Return)

Strategy: Finance only a part of permanent WC with long-term funds; rest with short-term funds.

Features:

  • Low liquidity maintained
  • Higher risk of cash shortage
  • Lower cost (short-term funds cheaper)
  • Higher profitability

Example:

Permanent WC: ₹10 lakhs
Temporary WC: ₹5 lakhs

Aggressive Financing:
- Long-term funds: ₹7 lakhs (partial permanent WC)
- Short-term funds: ₹8 lakhs (rest of permanent + all temporary)

1.3 Moderate/Hedging Approach (Balanced)

Strategy: Match the maturity of assets with the maturity of financing.

Features:

  • Permanent WC → Long-term funds
  • Temporary WC → Short-term funds
  • Balanced risk and return

Example:

Permanent WC: ₹10 lakhs → Long-term funds: ₹10 lakhs
Temporary WC: ₹5 lakhs → Short-term funds: ₹5 lakhs

2. Sources of Working Capital Financing

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3. Management of Working Capital Components

3.1 Cash Management

Objective: Maintain optimum cash balance - neither too much nor too little.

Key Aspects:

  1. Cash Planning: Prepare cash budgets to forecast inflows and outflows
  2. Cash Flow Management: Accelerate collections, delay payments (ethically)
  3. Cash Balance Management: Determine optimal level

Motives for Holding Cash (by J.M. Keynes):

  • Transaction Motive: For routine business operations
  • Precautionary Motive: For unexpected emergencies
  • Speculative Motive: To take advantage of bargain purchases

3.2 Receivables Management (Debtors/Accounts Receivable)

Objective: Balance between increasing sales (liberal credit) and minimizing bad debts (strict credit).

Key Decisions:

  1. Credit Standards: Who gets credit? (Credit scoring)
  2. Credit Terms: How much credit? For how long? (e.g., 2/10, net 30)
  3. Collection Policy: How to collect from slow payers?

Credit Period Trade-off:

Longer Credit Period:
  + Increases Sales
  + Improves customer satisfaction
  - Increases bad debt risk
  - More funds blocked in debtors

Shorter Credit Period:
  + Quick cash realization
  + Lower bad debt
  - May lose sales to competitors

Credit Policy Components:

  • Credit Analysis: Evaluate customer's creditworthiness (5 C's: Character, Capacity, Capital, Collateral, Conditions)
  • Credit Terms: "2/10, net 30" means 2% discount if paid within 10 days, otherwise full amount due in 30 days
  • Collection Efforts: Reminders, phone calls, legal action (progressive steps)

3.3 Inventory Management

Objective: Maintain optimum stock level - avoid stockouts and overstocking.

Types of Inventory:

  1. Raw Materials: Purchased goods awaiting production
  2. Work-in-Progress (WIP): Partially finished goods
  3. Finished Goods: Ready for sale
  4. Spare Parts: For maintenance

Inventory Management Techniques:

  1. ABC Analysis: Categorize inventory based on value

    • A Items: High value, tight control (10% items, 70% value)
    • B Items: Moderate value, normal control (20% items, 20% value)
    • C Items: Low value, loose control (70% items, 10% value)

  2. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ): Optimal order quantity to minimize total inventory costs

  3. Just-in-Time (JIT): Receive materials only when needed (zero inventory ideal)

  4. Safety Stock: Buffer stock to prevent stockouts

4. Working Capital Ratios (Performance Indicators)

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Interpretation:

  • High Current Ratio: Good liquidity, but may indicate inefficiency
  • Low Current Ratio: Risk of insolvency
  • High Inventory Turnover: Efficient stock management
  • High Debtors Turnover: Quick collection from customers

Exam Pattern Questions and Answers

Question 1: "Discuss the conservative and aggressive approaches of working capital financing." (6 Marks)

Answer:

Introduction (1 mark): Working capital financing strategies differ in how they match the maturity of current assets (permanent vs temporary) with the source of finance (long-term vs short-term). The two extreme approaches are Conservative and Aggressive.

Conservative Approach (2.5 marks): Under this low-risk strategy, the firm finances all permanent working capital and a substantial portion of temporary working capital with long-term sources like equity and debentures. Only the peak seasonal needs are met through short-term bank credit. This ensures high liquidity and minimal risk of cash shortage, but results in lower profitability as long-term funds are more expensive than short-term funds. It's suitable for risk-averse firms.

Aggressive Approach (2.5 marks): This high-risk strategy involves financing not only all temporary working capital but also a significant part of permanent working capital with short-term sources like bank overdrafts and trade credit. This minimizes the use of expensive long-term funds, reducing capital costs and increasing profitability. However, it carries higher risk of insolvency if short-term credit is not renewed or if there's a sudden cash crunch. It's suitable for firms willing to take risks for higher returns.

Question 2: "Explain the objectives of cash management." (4 Marks)

Answer: The main objectives of cash management are:

  1. Meeting Payment Schedule: Ensuring adequate cash is available to meet all payment obligations like salaries, suppliers, taxes on time to maintain creditworthiness.
  2. Minimizing Idle Cash: Avoiding excess cash lying idle earning no return, as it represents opportunity cost. Surplus cash should be invested in marketable securities.
  3. Optimizing Cash Balance: Determining and maintaining the optimum level of cash that balances liquidity needs with profitability objectives.
  4. Cash Planning: Preparing accurate cash budgets to anticipate future cash needs and arrange for funds well in advance to avoid last-minute crises.

Summary

Working Capital Financing:

  • Conservative: Safe but Less Profitable
  • Aggressive: Risky but More Profitable
  • Moderate: Balanced Approach

WC Management Components:

  1. Cash: Maintain optimum level (Baumol/Miller-Orr models)
  2. Receivables: Balance sales vs bad debts (Credit policy)
  3. Inventory: Balance stockouts vs overstocking (ABC, EOQ, JIT)

Key Principle: Balance Liquidity (ability to pay) with Profitability (efficient use of funds)

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Quiz Time! 🎯

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