Capital Budgeting Process and Decisions
Prerequisites
Before studying this chapter, make sure you understand:
- Functions of Financial Management - The investment decision function
- Nature of Capital Budgeting - Why the process needs to be rigorous
- Organization of Finance Function - Who is involved in the approval hierarchy
1. The Capital Budgeting Process
Capital budgeting is not a single decision but a comprehensive process involving multiple stages. Since these decisions involve huge funds, long-term commitment, and high risk, a systematic approach is essential.
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2. Detailed Analysis of Each Stage
Stage 1: Identification (Idea Generation)
What: Generating investment proposals and opportunities.
Sources of Ideas:
- Top Management: Strategic initiatives, mergers, new markets
- Operating Managers: Equipment replacement, capacity expansion
- R&D Department: New product development, technology upgrades
- Marketing Team: New distribution channels, promotional campaigns
- Employees: Suggestion schemes, process improvements
- External Sources: Consultants, industry trends, competitor analysis
Example:
- A production manager identifies that replacing old machinery with automated systems could reduce labor costs by 30%
- Marketing team proposes opening a new showroom in a growing city
- R&D suggests investing in a new product line based on market research
Stage 2: Screening (Initial Feasibility)
What: Preliminary evaluation to filter out unsuitable proposals.
Screening Criteria:
- Strategic Fit: Does it align with company's mission and objectives?
- Technical Feasibility: Is the technology proven and available?
- Legal Compliance: Are there regulatory or environmental clearances needed?
- Preliminary Financial Viability: Does it meet minimum return expectations?
- Resource Availability: Do we have the managerial capability?
Rejected at this stage:
- Projects violating environmental norms
- Proposals outside core competence
- Ideas requiring unavailable skills or technology
Example:
Proposal: Enter cryptocurrency mining business
Screening Decision: REJECT
Reasons:
✗ Not aligned with core manufacturing business
✗ Highly volatile and uncertain returns
✗ Lack of technical expertise in blockchain
✗ Regulatory uncertainty in the country
Stage 3: Evaluation (Detailed Analysis)
What: Rigorous financial and risk analysis using quantitative techniques.
Activities:
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Cash Flow Estimation:
- Initial investment (equipment, land, working capital)
- Annual operating cash inflows (sales revenue)
- Annual operating cash outflows (costs, maintenance)
- Terminal cash flows (salvage value, working capital recovery)
-
Financial Appraisal using methods like:
-
Risk Analysis:
- Sensitivity analysis (what-if scenarios)
- Scenario planning (best case, worst case, expected case)
- Break-even analysis
Key Question: Will the project add value to shareholders?
Stage 4: Selection (Authorization)
What: Final decision and budget allocation based on evaluation results.
Approval Hierarchy:
- Small Projects (< ₹10 lakhs): Department Head
- Medium Projects (₹10 lakhs - ₹1 crore): Finance Committee
- Large Projects (> ₹1 crore): Board of Directors
Selection Considerations:
- NPV > 0? IRR > Cost of Capital?
- Available budget (especially under capital rationing)
- Priority ranking among competing projects
- Risk vs Return balance
- Impact on existing operations
Capital Budgeting Committee typically includes:
- Chief Financial Officer (CFO)
- Head of Finance
- Heads of relevant departments
- External consultants (if needed)
Stage 5: Implementation (Execution)
What: Converting approved proposal into reality.
Activities:
- Detailed Planning: Timelines, milestones, resource allocation
- Vendor Selection: Competitive bidding for equipment/construction
- Project Management: Monitoring progress against schedule and budget
- Quality Control: Ensuring specifications are met
- Trial Runs: Testing before commercial production
Common Challenges:
- Cost overruns (actual costs > budgeted costs)
- Time delays (completion beyond deadline)
- Technical problems during installation
- Changes in market conditions during implementation
Example:
Approved Project: New manufacturing plant
Budget: ₹50 crores
Timeline: 18 months
Implementation Progress:
Month 6: Land acquired, construction started (On track)
Month 12: Building complete, machinery ordered (Slight delay - 1 month)
Month 20: Trial production successful (2 months delay, ₹2 cr cost overrun)
Month 21: Commercial production begins
Stage 6: Review and Control (Post-Audit)
What: Comparing actual performance with projected estimates.
Post-Implementation Audit:
-
Performance Review:
- Actual cash flows vs Projected cash flows
- Actual NPV vs Expected NPV
- Reasons for deviations
-
Learnings:
- What went right? What went wrong?
- Improve future forecasting accuracy
- Hold managers accountable
-
Corrective Action:
- If project underperforming: Can it be salvaged?
- Cost reduction measures
- Marketing initiatives to boost sales
Benefits of Post-Audit:
- Improves quality of future proposals (managers know they'll be reviewed)
- Accountability and responsibility
- Learning from experience
- Early warning system for problems
3. Types of Capital Budgeting Decisions
3.1 Classification by Dependency
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Example - Independent Projects:
Company has ₹100 lakhs and 3 independent opportunities:
- Project X: Investment ₹30L, NPV ₹5L ✓ Accept
- Project Y: Investment ₹40L, NPV ₹8L ✓ Accept
- Project Z: Investment ₹25L, NPV ₹3L ✓ Accept
Since funds are sufficient (₹95L needed, ₹100L available) and all have positive NPV, accept all three.
Example - Mutually Exclusive Projects:
Company needs ONE delivery vehicle:
- Small Truck: Investment ₹8L, NPV ₹2L
- Large Truck: Investment ₹15L, NPV ₹5L ✓ Select this
- Van: Investment ₹6L, NPV ₹1.5L
Select Large Truck (highest NPV). Reject others even though they have positive NPV.
3.2 Classification by Availability of Funds
Situation A: Unlimited Funds (Accept-Reject Decision)
- Accept ALL independent projects with NPV > 0
- Simple decision rule
Situation B: Capital Rationing (Ranking Decision)
- Limited budget available
- Cannot accept all profitable projects
- Must rank and select combination that maximizes total value
Capital Rationing Example:
Available Budget: ₹50 lakhs
Six Profitable Projects:
Project | Investment | NPV | PI (NPV/Inv) | Rank by PI
--------|-----------|-----|--------------|------------
A | ₹10L | ₹4L | 0.40 | 1st
B | ₹20L | ₹6L | 0.30 | 2nd
C | ₹25L | ₹5L | 0.20 | 3rd
D | ₹15L | ₹2L | 0.13 | 4th
E | ₹30L | ₹3L | 0.10 | 5th
F | ₹40L | ₹2L | 0.05 | 6th
Solution using PI ranking:
Select: A (₹10L) + B (₹20L) + D (₹15L) = ₹45L investment, ₹12L NPV
(Best combination within ₹50L budget)
3.3 Classification by Purpose
- Replacement Projects: Old machine → New machine
- Expansion Projects: Increase production capacity
- Modernization Projects: Upgrade technology
- Diversification Projects: Enter new product/market
- Welfare Projects: Employee facilities (gymnasium, canteen)
- Research Projects: R&D for future products
4. Real-World Case Study
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Exam Pattern Questions and Answers
Question 1: "Explain the capital budgeting process in detail." (8 Marks)
Answer:
Introduction (1 mark): Capital budgeting process is a systematic procedure involving six sequential steps to evaluate and select long-term investment projects, ensuring optimal allocation of scarce capital resources.
1. Identification (1 mark): Generating investment proposals from various sources like top management, department heads, R&D team, employees and external consultants. Ideas can range from replacement of worn-out machinery to entering entirely new markets.
2. Screening (1 mark): Preliminary evaluation to filter out proposals that don't fit company's strategic objectives, are technically infeasible, violate legal/environmental norms, or fail basic financial criteria. This saves detailed evaluation effort on unsuitable projects.
3. Evaluation (1.5 marks): Detailed financial analysis using tools like NPV, IRR, Payback Period and Profitability Index. Includes estimating all cash flows (initial investment, operating inflows/outflows, terminal values) and conducting risk analysis through sensitivity analysis and scenario planning.
4. Selection (1 mark): Final authorization based on evaluation results. Projects are ranked, budget is allocated, and approval is obtained from appropriate authority (department head for small projects, Board for large ones). Under capital rationing, projects are ranked by Profitability Index.
5. Implementation (1.5 marks): Converting approved proposal into reality through detailed planning, vendor selection, progress monitoring, quality control and trial runs. This phase often faces challenges like cost overruns, delays and technical problems requiring close supervision.
6. Review and Control (1 mark): Post-implementation audit comparing actual performance with projections. Analyzes reasons for deviations, ensures accountability, provides learning for future projects and triggers corrective actions if project underperforms.
Question 2: "Distinguish between independent and mutually exclusive projects with examples." (6 Marks)
Answer:
Independent Projects (3 marks): These are projects where the cash flows of one project are not affected by accepting or rejecting another project. They serve different purposes and can coexist. The decision rule is to accept ALL projects that have positive NPV (assuming unlimited funds). For example, a company can simultaneously invest in buying new computers for the IT department AND constructing a new warehouse, as both serve different purposes and don't compete with each other.
Mutually Exclusive Projects (3 marks): These are competing projects where accepting one automatically eliminates the need for others as they serve the same purpose. Only ONE can be selected. The decision rule is to select the project with the HIGHEST NPV among all acceptable alternatives. For example, if a company needs to install air-conditioning in an office and has three options - Window ACs (NPV ₹50,000), Split ACs (NPV ₹80,000), or Central AC (NPV ₹1,20,000), it will select Central AC as it has highest NPV, even though all three have positive NPV.
Question 3: "What is capital rationing? How does it affect project selection?" (4 Marks)
Answer:
Capital rationing is a situation where a firm has more profitable investment opportunities than the available funds to finance them all. The firm's budget is limited (rationed) and it cannot raise additional funds even if projects have positive NPV.
Impact on Selection: Under capital rationing, the firm cannot use the simple NPV rule of "accept all projects with NPV > 0". Instead, projects must be ranked using Profitability Index (PI = NPV/Investment) which shows value created per rupee invested. The firm then selects the combination of projects that maximizes total NPV within the budget constraint, which may mean rejecting some profitable projects with positive NPV if they have lower efficiency (lower PI).
Summary
Capital Budgeting Process (6 Stages):
- Identification → Generate proposals
- Screening → Filter unsuitable ones
- Evaluation → NPV, IRR analysis
- Selection → Budget allocation & approval
- Implementation → Execute the project
- Review → Post-audit for learning
Decision Types:
- Independent: Accept all with NPV > 0 (if funds available)
- Mutually Exclusive: Select ONE with highest NPV
- Capital Rationing: Rank by PI, select best combination within budget
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Quiz Time! 🎯
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